ISSUE: 2/2025
- Volume 29
- Number 2
- 2025
Subscribe NEWSLETTER
Studia Europejskie –
Studies in European Affairs
ISSN: 1428-149X
e-ISSN: 2719-3780
License
Articles published in the journal are under a Creative Commons Attribution – Non Commercial – No Derivatives 4.0 International License
Publication co-financed by Ministry of Science and Higher Education pursuant to the Regulation of the Minister of Education and Science of 3 August 2021 (Journal of Laws of 2021, item 1514) on the “Development of Scientific Journals” programme.
Publikacja dofinansowana przez Ministerstwo Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego na podstawie rozporządzenia Ministra Edukacji i Nauki z 3 sierpnia 2021 r. (Dz. U. z 2021 r. poz. 1514) w sprawie programu „Rozwój czasopism naukowych”.
Publication co-financed by the University of Warsaw within the “Excellence Initiative – Research University” programme.
Czasopismo otrzymało dofinasowanie w ramach Programu „Inicjatywa Doskonałości – Uczelnia Badawcza”.
The Arctic as a Strategic Space: The Role of the High North in Transforming Sweden’s Foreign and Security Policy
Abstract
This article examines the influence of the evolving geopolitical and geo-economic environment in the High North on the transformation of Sweden’s foreign and security policy – from pursuing a feminist foreign policy to adopting a state-centric approach, focused on traditional state interests. First, it conceptualises national strategies, and introduces the case of Sweden. It then presents a Structural Realism framework concerning defensive alliances, and the concept of deterrence. Next, the article maps Sweden’s foreign and security policy, and the role of the High North from 2011 to 2018. In this section, it explores the underlying motives behind, and the consequences of, Sweden’s active pursuit of a feminist foreign policy. Subsequently, the article examines the role of the High North in refocusing Sweden’s foreign and security policy on state interests during the period 2019 to 2025. It discusses the influence of Sweden’s leadership in regional fora such as NORDEFCO, the Northern Group, and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe – a development that led successive Swedish governments to gradually shift from promoting normative interests at the individual level, to prioritising hard security interests at the state level. The article concludes by explaining why the High North has become imperative to advancing Sweden’s economic, and military, security interests.
References
Aggestam, K., Bergman Rosamond, A. and Kronsell, A. (2019) “Theorising feminist foreign policy”, International Relations. Vol. 33(1), pp. 23–39. DOI: 10.1177/004711781881189.
Barry T., Daviðsdóttir, B., Einarsson, N., and Young, O.R. (2020) “The Arctic Council: an agent of change?”, Global Environmental Change. Vol. 63. DOI: 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2020.102099.
BBC (2022) Ukraine conflict: Russian forces attack from three sides. 24.02. Available at: https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-60503037 (Access 9.05.2025).
Brommesson, D. Ekengren, A.-M. and Michalski, A. (2022) Sweden’s Foreign and Security Policy in a Time of Flux. The Swedish Institute of International Affairs. Available at: https://www.ui.se/globalassets/ui.se-eng/publications/ui-publications/2022/ui-brief-no.-7-2022.pdf (Access 9.05.2025).
Coface (2024) Sweden. Available at: https://www.coface.com/news-economy-and-insights/business-risk-dashboard/country-risk-files/sweden (Access 9.05.2025).
Committee on Education (2013) “Svensk rymdverksamhet”. Report 2013/14:UbU8. Available at: https://filedn.com/ljdBas5OJsrLJOq6KhtBYC4/forarbeten/bet/2013-14/bet-2013-14-ubu8.pdf (Access 9.05.2025).
Crilly, D. (2017) “Time and Space in Strategy Discourse: Implications for Intertemporal Choice”, Strategic Management Journal. Vol. 38, pp. 2370–2389. DOI: 10.1002/smj.2687.
Curtis E. Lemay Center (2020) Extended Deterrence. 18.12. Available at: https://www.doctrine.af.mil/Portals/61/documents/AFDP_3-72/3-72-D12-NUKE-OPS-Extended-Deterrence.pdf (Access 9.05.2025).
Forsberg, B. (2019) “Svenska Rymdbolaget skrev avtal med kinesisk militär”. SvD, 19.01. Available at: https://www.svd.se/a/VRndK6/statliga-rymdbolaget-skrev-avtal-med-kinesisk-militar (Access 9.05.2025).
Francis Fukuyama (1989) “The End of History?”, The National Interest. Vol. 16, pp. 3–18. DOI: https://www.jstor.org/stable/24027184.
GoS (2011) Government Offices of Sweden. Sweden’s strategy for the Arctic region. Available at: https://library.arcticportal.org/1893/1/Swedens-Strategy-for-the-Arctic-Region.pdf (Access 9.05.2025).
GoS (2015a) Government Offices of Sweden. Statement of Government Policy. 11.02. Available at: https://www.government.se/speeches/2015/02/statement-of-foreign-policy-2015/ (Access 9.05.2025).
GoS (2015b) Government Offices of Sweden. Sweden’s Defence Policy 2016 to 2020. 1.06. Available at: https://www.government.se/globalassets/government/dokument/forsvarsdepartementet/sweden_defence_policy_2016_to_2020 (Access 9.05.2025).
GoS (2016a) Government Offices of Sweden. Human rights, democracy and the principles of the rule of law in Swedish foreign policy. Ds 2016/17:62. Available at: https://www.government.se/contentassets/f864bf87a5d64f11b033f32e6e1fed3f/human-rights-democracy-and-the-principles-of-the-rule-of-law-in-swedish-foreign-policy.pdf (Access 9.05.2025).
GoS (2016b) Government Offices of Sweden. Statement of Government Policy, 24.02. Available at: https://www.government.se/contentasse ts/6d43e67099e24441967be7c38b8888cc/statement-of-government-policy-in-the-parliamentary-debate-on-foreign-affairs-2016/ (Access 9.05.2025).
GoS (2017a) Government Offices of Sweden. Statement of Government Policy. 15.02. Available at: https://www.government.se/contentassets/a5301aa719c944d787d82ad2aa5fd974/utrikesdeklarationen-2017-engelska.pdf (Access 9.05.2025).
GoS (2017b) Government Offices of Sweden. Nationell säkerhetsstrategi. 4.01. Available at: https://www.socialdemokraterna.se/download/18.6a46455216c3d0f447e7134/1568881617947/nationell-sakerhetsstrategi.pdf (Access 9.05.2025).
GoS (2018) Government Offices of Sweden. Statement of Government Policy. 14.02. Available at: https://www.government.se/contentassets/da51ffff1e3848b4bc5597190bdd8c4e/Statement-of-Foreign-Policy-2018/ (Access 9.05.2025).
GoS (2019a) Government Offices of Sweden. Statement of Government Policy. 13.02. Available at: https://www.government.se/globalassets/government/dokument/utrikesdepartementet/statement-of-foreign-policy-2019/ (Access 9.05.2025).
GoS (2019b) Government Offices of Sweden. Värnkraft – Inriktningen av säkerhetspolitiken och utformningen av det militära försvaret 2021–2025. 14.05. Available at: https://www.riksdagen.se/sv/dokument-och-lagar/dokument/departementsserien/varnkraft-inriktningen-av-sakerhetspolitiken-och_h7b48/ (Access 9.05.2025).
GoS (2020a) Government Offices of Sweden. The Government’s Statement of Foreign Policy 2020. 12.02. Available at: https://www.government.se/speeches/2020/02/2020-statement-of-foreign-policy/ (Access 9.05.2025).
GoS (2020b) Government Offices of Sweden. Sweden’s strategy for the Arctic Region. 24.09. Available at: https://www.government.se/contentassets/85de9103bbbe4373b55eddd7f71608da/swedens-strategy-for-the-arctic-region-2020.pdf (Access 9.05.2025).
GoS (2021) Government Offices of Sweden. Statement of Foreign Policy 2021. 24.02. Available at: https://www.government.se/speeches/2021/02/statement-of-foreign-policy/ (Access 9.05.2025).
GoS (2022a) Government Offices of Sweden. Statement of Foreign Policy 2022. 16.02. Available at: https://www.government.se/globalassets/government/dokument/utrikesdepartementet/statement-of-foreign-policy-20222.pdf (Access 9.05.2025).
GoS (2022b) Government Offices of Sweden. Deterioration of the security environment – implications for Sweden. Ds 2022:8, 13.05. Available at: https://www.government.se/legal-documents/2022/05/ds-20228/ (Access 9.05.2025).
GoS (2022c) Government Offices of Sweden. Regeringsförklaringen. 18.10. Available at: https://www.regeringen.se/tal/2022/10/regeringsforklaringen-den-18-oktober-2022/ (Access 9.05.2025).
GoS (2023) Government Offices of Sweden. The Nordic region – safer, greener, freer: Programme for the Swedish Presidency 2024 of the Nordic Council of Ministers. 31.10. Available at: https://pub.norden.org/politiknord2023-733/ (Access 9.05.2025).
GoS (2024a) Government Offices of Sweden. Sveriges och Natos historia. 3.04. Available at: https://www.regeringen.se/regeringens-politik/sverige-i-nato/sveriges-och-natos-historia/ (Access 9.05.2025).
GoS (2024b) Government Offices of Sweden. The role of space in a new security situation: Sweden’s defence and security strategy for space. 4.07. Available at: https://www.government.se/contentassets/f336052c285a464cb8741da433ac703b/swedens-defence-and-security-strategy-for-space.pdf (Access 9.05.2025).
GoS (2024c) Government Offices of Sweden. Regionalt samarbete – ett år av svenskt ordförandeskap i N5 och NB8. Available at: https://www.regeringen.se/artiklar/2024/12/starkt-regionalt-samarbete—ett-ar-av-svenskt-ordforandeskap-i-n5-och-nb8/ (Access 9.05.2025).
GoS (2024d) Government Offices of Sweden. National Security Strategy. 8.07. Available at: https://www.government.se/contentassets/dee95d002683482eba019df49db2801f/national-security-strategy_.pdf (Access 9.05.2025).
GoS (2025a) Government Offices of Sweden. Sweden in NATO. 7.03. Available at: https://www.government.se/government-policy/sweden-in-nato/ (Access 9.05.2025).
GoS (2025b) Government Offices of Sweden. Statement of Foreign Policy 2020. 12.02. Available at: https://www.government.se/contentassets/8afce2ab3067435cbc7ecc28d1e30350/statement-of-foreign-policy-2025.pdf (Access 9.05.2025).
Håkansson, C. (2021) “Finding its way in EU security and defence cooperation: A view from Sweden”, European View. Vol. 20(1), pp. 80–87. DOI: 10.1177/17816858211004647.
Johnson, J.C. and Joiner, S. (2021) “Power changes, alliance credibility, and extended deterrence”, Conflict Management and Peace Science. Vol. 38(2). DOI: 10.1177/0738894218824735.
Kant, I. (1795[1917]) Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Essay Campbell Smith, M. (transl.). London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd.
Lawler, P. (1997) “Scandinavian Exceptionalism and European Union”, Journal of Common Market Studies. Vol. 35(4), pp. 565–594.
Leeds, B.A. (2003) “Do Alliances Deter Aggression? The Influence of Military Alliances on the Initiation of Militarized Interstate Disputes”, American Journal of Political Science. Vol. 47(3), pp. 427–439.
Leeds, B.A. (2015) Why Do States Sign Alliances? in Scott, R. and Kosslyn, S. (eds.) Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
LKAB (2023) Europe’s largest deposit of rare earth metals located in Kiruna area. 12.01. Available at: https://lkab.com/en/press/europes-largest-deposit-of-rare-earth-metals-is-located-in-the-kiruna-area/ (Access 9.05.2025).
LKAB (2025) LKAB. Available at: https://lkab.com/en/ (Access 9.05.2025).
Lucas, E., Sendak, C., Collén, C., Kallberg, C. and Viksnins, K. (2023) Sea Change: Nordic-Baltic Security in a New Era. The Center for European Policy Analysis, 28.11. Available at: https://cepa.org/comprehensive-reports/sea-change-nordic-baltic-security-in-a-new-era/ (Access 9.05.2025).
Lundqvist, S. (2017) Continuity and Change in post-Cold War Maritime Security: A Study of the Strategies Pursued by the US, Sweden and Finland 1991–2016. PhD Thesis, Åbo Akademi. DOI: 10.1080/14702436.2016.1220805.
Lundqvist, S. (2020) Jointly Navigating the Baltic-Arctic Strategic Space: The Case of Sweden and Finland in Guy, T., Bonnar, T. and Garza, J. (eds.) Cutting the Bow Wave. Norfolk: Combined Joint Operations from the Sea Centre of Excellence, pp. 23–27.
Lundqvist S. (2022) “A Convincing Finnish Move: Implications for State Identity of Persuading Sweden to Jointly Bid for NATO Membership”, Studia Europejskie – Studies in European Affairs. Vol. 26(4), pp. 73–110. DOI: 10.33067/SE.4.2022.3.
Lundqvist, S. (2024) Relearning the Lessons from the Cold War: Sweden Goes «back to the future» with Its Defence and Security Policy in Suchoples, J., James, S. and Hanka, H. (eds.) The Cold War Re-called: 21st Century Perceptions of the Worldwide Geopolitical Tension. Berlin: Peter Lang Verlag.
Marchenkov, M.L. (2022) “Consistency and Adaptability: New Aspects of the Arctic Policy of Sweden”, Arctic and North. Vol. 47, pp. 126–141. DOI: 10.37482/issn2221-2698.2022.47.126.
Mazarr, M.J. (2018) “Understanding Deterrence”, Perspectives, PE-295-RC. Available at: https://www.rand.org/pubs/perspectives/PE295.html (Access 9.05.2025).
MoD FIN (2018) Ministry of Defence of Finland. Trilateral Statement of Intent. Available at: https://www.defmin.fi/files/4231/Trilateral_Statement_of_Intent.pdf (Access 9.05.2025).
MoFA Fin (2025) Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Finland. Finland’s membership in NATO. Available at: https://um.fi/finlands-membership-in-nato (Access 9.05.2025).
NATO (2025) Norway and NATO. Available at: https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/declassified_162353.htm (Access 9.05.2025).
NORDEFCO (2018) Nordic Defence Cooperation. Nordic Defence Cooperation Vision 2025. Available at: https://www.nordefco.org/Files/nordefco-vision-2025-signed.pdf (Access 9.05.2025).
NOR MoD (2015) Norwegian Ministry of Defence. Unified effort. Report from expert commission on Norwegian security and defence policy. Available at: https://www.regjeringen.no/globalassets/departementene/fd/dokumenter/unified-effort.pdf (Access 9.05.2025).
Pamment, J. and Palmerz, B. (2024) Deterrence by Denial and Resilience Building, in Arcos, R., Chiru, I. and Ivan, C. (eds.) Routledge handbook of disinformation and national security. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. ISBN: 9781032040509.
Papworth, E. (2024) Advancing Feminist Foreign Policy in the Multilateral System: Key Debates and Challenges. Issue Brief, March. International Peace Institute. Available at: https://www.ipinst.org/wp-content/ uploads/2024/03/2403_Advancing-Feminist-Foreign-Policyweb.pdf (Access 9.05.2025).
Prime Minister’s Office Sweden (2013) Future Challenges for Sweden. Report DS 2013:19. Available at: https://www.government.se/contentassets/dd31f545664a4bc7b75d1b9bc49de292/future-challenges-for-sweden-final-report-of-the-commission-on-the-future-of-sweden.pdf (Access 9.05.2025).
Radio Sweden (2019) Foreign Minister: What happens in the Arctic affects the whole EU. 3.10. Available at: https://www.sverigesradio.se/artikel/7313710 (Access 9.05.2025).
Raimond, P. (1996) “Two Styles of Foresight: Are We Predicting the Future or Inventing It?”, Long Range Planning. Vol. 29(2), pp. 208–214.
Rolland, P. (2024) “Mapping Chinas Strategic Space”, the National Bureau of Asian Research Special Report No. 111. Available at: https://www.nbr.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/publications/sr111_rolland_september2024.pdf (Access 9.05.2025).
Schippers, B. (ed.) (2020) The Routledge Handbook to Rethinking Ethics in International Relations. London, New York: Routledge. ISBN: 9781315613529 (e-book). Available at: https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.4324/9781315613529/routledge-handbook-rethinking-ethics-international-relations-birgit-schippers (Access 9.05.2025).
Sjögren, A. (2023) “LKAB: Jättefynd av sällsynta metaller”, Aftonbladet. 12.01. Available at: https://www.aftonbladet.se/nyheter/a/onv9VR/lkab-jattefynd-av-sallsynta-metaller (Access 9.05.2025).
SOU (2015) Swedish Government Official Report. En rymdstrategi för nytta och tillväxt. SOU 2015:75. Available at: https://www.regeringen.se/contentassets/8a48a7774c1147f68cf6661e3a423686/sou_2015_75_webb.pdf (Access 9.05.2025).
SOU (2022) Swedish Government Official Report. En tryggad försörjning av metaller och mineral. SOU 2022:56. Available at: https://www.regeringen.se/contentassets/8d6f4bd8016e4a50ac94931b9b635285/en-tryggad-forsorjning-av-metaller-och-mineral-sou-202256.pdf (Access 9.05.2025).
Svenska kraftnät (2024) Grid development plan 2024–2033. Available at: https://www.svk.se/siteassets/om-oss/rapporter/2024/grid_development_plan_2024-2033.pdf (Access 9.05.2025).
SVT (2021) Rymdbasen Esrange avslutar kinesiskt samarbete. 27.08. Available at: https://www.svt.se/nyheter/lokalt/norrbotten/rymdbasen-esrange-avslutar-kinesiskt-samarbete (Access 9.05.2025).
SVT (2022) USA och Sverige har signerat nytt militärt samarbetsavtal. 17.10. Available at: https://www.svt.se/nyheter/utrikes/usa-och-sverige-har-signerat-nytt-militart-samarbetsavtal (Access 9.05.2025).
Swe Gov (2018) Swedish Government, En strategi för svensk rymdverksamhet. Government letter 2017/18:259. 9.05. Available at: https://www.regeringen.se/contentassets/b6b324fe625a40be852dfcb661f5da77/171825900_webb.pdf (Access 9.05.2025).
Swe Gov (2019) Swedish Government. Sweden’ feminist foreign policy. Government Communication 2019/20:17. 19.09. Available at: https://www.regeringen.se/contentassets/8db3c4560ab0466faf82edaa1c209fe0/swedens-feminist-foreign-policy-skr-20192017.pdf (Access 9.05.2025).
Swe Gov (2020) Swedish Government. Nordiskt samarbete 2019. Letter to Parliament, Skr. 2019/20:90. 29.03. Available at: https://www.regeringen.se/contentassets/bff7fac72ea34ae4b2db356dffbfa609/regeringens-skrivelse-2019-20-90.pdf (Access 9.05.2025).
Swe Gov (2022) Swedish Government. Sweden invited to join NATO at Madrid Summit. 1.07. Available at: https://www.government.se/articles/2022/07/sweden-invited-to-join-nato-at-madrid-summit/ (Access 9.05.2025).
Swedish Parliament (2019) Det fria tillträdet till Östersjön. Answer to question 2018/19:54. 6.02. Available at https://www.riksdagen.se/sv/dokument-och-lagar/dokument/skriftlig-fraga/det-fria-tilltradet-till-ostersjon_h61154/ (Access 9.05.2025).
Swedish Parliament (2022) Fråga 2024/25:802 av Olle Thorell om Regeringens hållning till feministisk utrikespolitik. 26.02. Available at: https://www.riksdagen.se/sv/dokument-och-lagar/dokument/skriftlig-fraga/regeringens-hallning-till-feministisk_hc11802/ (Access 9.05.2025).
Towns, A., Jezierska, K. and Bjarnegård, E. (2024) “Can a feminist foreign policy be undone? Reflections from Sweden”, International Affairs. Vol. 100(3), pp. 1263–1273. DOI: 10.1093/ia/iiae079.
US SPoC (2022) United States Space Operations Command. USSPACECOM and Sweden sign a Space Situational Awareness sharing agreement. 7.04. Available at: https://www.spoc.spaceforce.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/2994051/usspacecom-and-sweden-sign-a-space-situational-awareness-sharing-agreement (Access 9.05.2025).
Walt, S.M. (1985) “Alliance Formation and the Balance of World Power”, International Security. Vol. 9(4), pp. 3–43. DOI: 10.2307/2538540.
Walt, S.M. (1987) The origins of alliances. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.
Waltz, K.N. (1990) “Realist Thought and Neorealist Theory”, Journal of International Affairs. Vol. 44(1), pp. 21–37.
Waltz, K.N. (1993) “The Emerging Structure of International Politics”, International Security. Vol. 18(2), pp. 44–79.
Waltz, K.N. (2000) “Structural Realism after the Cold War”, International Security. Vol. 25(1), pp. 5–41. DOI: 10.1162/016228800560372.
Waltz, K.N. (2010 [1979]) Theory of international politics. Long Grove, Ill.: Waveland Press Inc.
Wieslander A. (2022) “«The Hultqvist doctrine» – Swedish security and defence policy after the Russian annexation of Crimea”, Defence Studies. Vol. 22(1), pp. 35–59. DOI: 10.1080/14702436.2021.1955619.
Wooding, P. (2023) “Space as a strategic geography”. Air/Space. Vol. 2. Available at: https://airpower.airforce.gov.au/blog/space-strategic-geography (Access 9.05.2025).
Xylia, M., Bin Ashraf, F., Rudberg, P.M., Barqquet, K. and Han, G. (2024) Keeping the flow: hydropower, river ecosystems and governance in northern Sweden. SEI Report. Stockholm Environment Institute. Available at: https://www.sei.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/northern-swedish-hydropower-sei2024.014.pdf (Access 9.05.2025).
Zingel W.-P. (2010) National Security and Economic Development: Securing Development – Developing Security in Economic Impacts of Crisis Response Operations. An Underestimated Factor in External Engagement. Available at: https://www.bmlv.gv.at/wissen-forschung/publikationen/publikation.php?id=566 (Access 9.05.2025).
DOI: 10.33067/SE.2.2025.4
Language: English
Pages: 57-88
How to Cite:
Harvard
Lundqvist, S. (2025) "The Arctic as a Strategic Space: The Role of the High North in Transforming Sweden’s Foreign and Security Policy". Studia Europejskie – Studies in European Affairs, 2/2025, pp. 57-88. DOI: 10.33067/SE.2.2025.4