ISSUE: 1/2026
- Volume 30
- Number 1
- 2026
Subscribe NEWSLETTER
Studia Europejskie –
Studies in European Affairs
ISSN: 1428-149X
e-ISSN: 2719-3780
License
Articles published in the journal are under a Creative Commons Attribution – Non Commercial – No Derivatives 4.0 International License

Publication co-financed by Ministry of Science and Higher Education pursuant to the Regulation of the Minister of Education and Science of 3 August 2021 (Journal of Laws of 2021, item 1514) on the “Development of Scientific Journals” programme.
Publikacja dofinansowana przez Ministerstwo Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego na podstawie rozporządzenia Ministra Edukacji i Nauki z 3 sierpnia 2021 r. (Dz. U. z 2021 r. poz. 1514) w sprawie programu „Rozwój czasopism naukowych”.

Publication co-financed by the University of Warsaw within the “Excellence Initiative – Research University” programme.
Czasopismo otrzymało dofinasowanie w ramach Programu „Inicjatywa Doskonałości – Uczelnia Badawcza”.
A Silver Lining or Wishful Thinking? Central Asia in the EU’s Critical Raw Materials Strategy
Abstract
This paper explores the potential of Central Asia as a critical supplier of critical raw materials (CRMs) for the European Union (EU) in the context of the Russia–Ukraine conflict, examining the EU’s neighbourhood policies and energy security from a geopolitical perspective. Following the EU’s decision to de-risk from China, reducing dependency on Chinese CRMs has become a key policy priority. To achieve this objective, the EU has sought to strategically engage with neighbouring countries, including those in Central Asia, particularly Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, which possess significant CRM reserves. Despite the EU’s increasingly proactive and accelerated efforts, fully unlocking the region’s potential remains highly challenging. In addition to substantial investments in infrastructure and the transfer of technological expertise, the EU must carefully balance the interests of Central Asian countries, the world’s major powers, and its own Member States.
References
Archambault, J.S. (2024) “Concrete times”, Annual Review of Anthropology. Vol. 53, pp. 293–308. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-anthro-041422-031946.
Bennett, T. and Joyce, P. (eds.) (2010) Material Powers: Cultural Studies, History and the Material Turn. Oxon: Routledge.
Blondeel, M. Bradshawm, M.J., Bridge, G. and Kuzemko, C. (2021) “The geopolitics of energy system transformation: a review”, Geography Compass. Vol. 15, e12580. DOI: 10.1111/gec3.12580.
Borzel, T.A. and Risse, T. (2012) “From Europeanisation to diffusion: introduction”, West European Politics. Vol. 35(1), pp. 1–19. DOI: 10.1080/01402382.2012.631310.
Bocse, A.M. (2019) “EU energy diplomacy: searching for new suppliers in Azerbaijan and Iran”, Geopolitics. Vol. 24(1), pp. 145–173. DOI: 10.1080/14650045.2018.1477755.
Brauer, B. (2019) Relations with the West in Kazakhstan: Tested by Transition. London: Chatham House Report, pp. 100–109.
Bues, A. and Gailing, L. (2016) Energy transitions and power: between governmentality and depoliticization in Gailing, L. and Moss, T. (eds.) Conceptualizing Germany’s Energy Transition: Institutions, Materiality, Power, Space. London: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 69–91. DOI: 10.1057/978-1-137-50593-4_5.
Cederlöf, G. (2021) “Out of steam: energy, materiality, and political ecology”, Progress in Human Geography. Vol. 45(1), pp. 70–87. DOI: 10.1177/0309132519884622.
Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2025) Foreign Ministry spokesperson Guo Jiakun’s regular press conference on June 18, 2025. Available at: https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/xw/fyrbt/202506/t20250618_11652681.html (Accessed 12.04.2025).
Collins, N. and Bekenova, K. (2017) “Fuelling the new great game: Kazakhstan, energy policy and the EU”, Asia Europe Journal. Vol. 15, pp. 1–20. DOI: 10.1007/s10308-016-0451-4.
Council of the European Union (2007) The EU and Central Asia: Strategy for a New Partnership. Available at: https://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST-10113-2007-INIT/en/pdf (Access 11.02.2026).
Council of the European Union (2015) Council conclusions on energy diplomacy. Available at: https://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST-10995-2015-INIT/en/pdf (Access 11.02.2026).
Council of the European Union (2019) Council conclusions on the new strategy on Central Asia. Available at: https://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/39778/st10221-en19.pdf (Access 11.02.2026).
Council of the European Union (2023) Joint roadmap for deepening ties between the EU and Central Asia. Available at: https://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST-14587-2023-INIT/en/pdf (Access 11.02.2026).
Council of the European Union (2025) EU-Central Asia Summit (Samarkand, 4 April 2025) – Joint Declaration. Available at: https://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST-7745-2025-REV-1/en/pdf (Access 11.02.2026).
Dalby, S. (2014) “Environmental geopolitics in the twenty-first century”, Alternatives: Global, Local, Political. Vol. 39(1), pp. 3–16. DOI: 10.1177/0304375414558355.
Emerson, M. (2011) “Just good friends? The European Union’s multiple neighbourhood policies”, The International Spectator. Vol. 46(4), pp. 45–62. DOI: 10.1080/03932729.2011.628091.
European Commission (N.D.) A global Europe: leveraging our power and partnership. Available at: https://commission.europa.eu/priorities-2024-2029/global-europe_en (Access 11.02.2026).
European Commission (2006) On strengthening the European Neighbourhood Policy. Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2006:0726:FIN:EN:PDF. (Access 11.02.2026).
European Commission (2011) Tackling the challenges in commodity markets and on raw materials. Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2011:0025:FIN:en:PDF (Access 11.02.2026).
European Commission (2022) Strategic Partnership between the European Union and Kazakhstan on sustainable raw materials, batteries and renewable hydrogen value chains. Available at: https://single-market-economy.ec.europa.eu/news/strategic-partnership-between-european-union-and-kazakhstan-sustainable-raw-materials-batteries-and-2022-11-08_en (Access 11.02.2026).
European Commission (2023a) A secure and sustainable supply of critical raw materials in support of the twin transition. Available at: https://circabc.europa.eu/rest/download/7ce37e41-1d9a-4f96-a24b-4f89207700bf (Access 11.02.2026).
European Commission (2023b) Annexes to the proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing a framework for ensuring a secure and sustainable supply of critical raw materials and amending Regulations (EU) 168/2013, (EU) 2018/858, 2018/1724 and (EU) 2019/1020. Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/resource.html?uri=cellar:903d35cc-c4a2-11ed-a05c01aa75ed71a1.0001.02/DOC_2&format=PDF (Access 11.02.2026).
European Commission (2023c) Global Gateway: EU and Argentina step up cooperation on raw materials. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/api/files/document/print/en/ip_23_3217/IP_23_3217_EN.pdf (Access 11.02.2026).
European Commission (2024a) EU establishes strategic partnership with Uzbekistan on critical raw materials. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_24_1806 (Access 11.02.2026).
European Commission (2024b) Global Gateway: EU and Central Asian countries agree on building blocks to develop the Trans-Caspian Transport Corridor. Available at: https://international-partnerships.ec.europa.eu/news-and-events/news/global-gateway-eu-and-central-asian-countries-agree-building-blocks-develop-trans-caspian-transport-2024-01-30_en (Access 11.02.2026).
European Commission (2025) The European Union and Central Asia establish a Strategic Partnership during groundbreaking summit. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ac_25_990 (Access 11.02.2026).
European Union (2003) Wider Europe — Neighbourhood: A New Framework for Relations with our Eastern and Southern Neighbours. Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52003DC0104 (Access 11.02.2026).
European Union (2016) Shared Vision, Common Action: A Stronger Europe – A Global Strategy for the European Union’s Foreign and Security Policy. Available at: https://www.eeas.europa.eu/sites/default/files/eugs_ review_web_0.pdf (Access 11.02.2026).
European Union (2024) Establishing a framework for ensuring a secure and sustainable supply of critical raw materials and amending Regulations (EU) No. 168/2013, (EU) 2018/858, (EU) 2018/1724 and (EU) 2019/1020. Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=OJ:L_202401252 (Access 11.02.2026).
Fawn, R. (2022) “«Not here for geopolitical interests or games»: the EU’s 2019 strategy and the regional and inter-regional competition for Central Asia”, Central Asian Survey. Vol. 41(4), pp. 675–698. DOI: 10.1080/02634937.2021.1951662.
Hardt, M. and Negri, A. (2000) Empire. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. DOI: 10.4159/9780674038325.
Herranz-Surrallés, A. (2016) Energy cooperation: the leading light of the revised European Neighbourhood Policy? The limits of the EU’s functionalist extension in Bouris, D. and Schumacher, T. (eds.) The Revised European Neighbourhood Policy: Continuity and Change in EU Foreign Policy. London, Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 241–261. DOI: 10.1057/978-1-137-47182-6_12.
Jerzyniak, T. (2024) “The EU de-risking of energy dependencies: towards a new clean energy geopolitical order?”, Politics and Governance. Vol. 12, article 8285. DOI: 10.17645/pag.8285. DOI: 10.17645/pag.8285.
Johansson-Nogués, E. and Leso, F. (2025) “Geopolitical EU? The EU’s wartime assistance to Ukraine”, Journal of Common Market Studies. Vol. 63(1), pp. 127–142. DOI: 10.1111/jcms.13613.
Joyce, P. and Mukerji, C. (2017) “The state of things: state history and theory reconfigured”, Theory and Society. Vol. 46, pp. 1–19. DOI: 10.1007/s11186-017-9282-6.
Keohane, R.O. [2005(1984)] After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. DOI: 10.2307/j.ctt7sq9s.
Kopalle, P.K. et al. (2024) “Delivering affordable clean energy to consumers”, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science. Vol. 52(5), pp. 1452–1474. DOI: 10.1007/s11747-024-01003-2.
Küblböck, K. (2013) “The EU Raw Materials Initiative: scope and critical Assessment”, ÖFSE Briefing Paper. No. 8.
Lannon, E. (2016) The “neighbours of the EU’s neighbors”: the “EU’s broader neighborhood” and the “arc of crisis and strategic challenges” from the Sahel to Central Asia in Gstohl, S. and Lannon, E. (eds.) The Neighbours of the European Union’s Neighbours: Diplomatic and Geopolitical Dimensions beyond the European Neighbourhood Policy. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, pp. 1–25. DOI: 10.4324/9781315555287-1.
Leali, G. and Verhelst, K. (2025) “China’s got the world in a rare earth choke hold”, Politico, 17.06. Available at: https://www.politico.eu/article/donald-trump-china-ursula-von-der-leyen/ (Access 11.02.2026).
Lucke, K. (2023) Report on the EU Strategy on Central Asia. Available at: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/A-9-2023-0407_EN.html (Access 11.02.2026).
Manners, I. (2002) “Normative power Europe: a contradiction in terms?”, Journal of Common Market Studies. Vol. 40(2), pp. 235–258. DOI: 10.1111/1468-5965.00353.
Meunier, S. and Nicolaidis, K. (2011) The European Union as a trade power in Hill, C. and Smith, M. (eds.) International Relations and the European Union. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 155–180. DOI: 10.1093/hepl/9780192897343.003.0008.
Müller, M., Saulich, C., Schöneich, S. and Schulze, M. (2023) From Competition to a Sustainable Raw Materials Diplomacy: Pointers for European Policymakers. Berlin: German Institute for International and Security Affairs.
Noyan, O. (2023) Critical raw materials: China 15 years ahead, expert says, Euractiv. 9.06. Available at: https://www.euractiv.com/section/energy/news/critical-raw-materials-china-15-years-ahead-expert-says/ (Access 11.02.2026).
Nyshanbayev, N. Augan, M., Almaz and M. Baiymbetova, Z. (2024) “Central Asia in a changing world: understanding the impact of the Russia-Ukraine conflict”, Kasetsart Journal of Social Sciences. Vol. 45, pp. 1373–1382. DOI: 10.34044/j.kjss.2024.45.4.30.
Official Website of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan (2023) President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev’s State of the Nation Address “Economic course of a Just Kazakhstan”. Available at: https://www.akorda.kz/en/president-kassym-jomart-tokayevs-state-of-the-nation-address-economic-course-of-a-just-kazakhstan-283243 (Access 11.02.2026).
Omirgazy, D. (2025) Kazakhstan attracts $1 billion in geological investment, uncovers major rare earth deposit, The Astana Times. 15.05. Available at: https://astanatimes.com/2025/05/kazakhstan-attracts-1-billion-in-geological-investment-uncovers-major-rare-earth-deposit/ (Access 11.02.2026).
Pänke, J. (2019) “Liberal empire, geopolitics and EU strategy: norms and interests in European foreign policy making”, Geopolitics. Vol. 24(1), pp. 100–123. DOI: 10.1080/14650045.2018.1528545.
Petry, J. (2023) “Beyond ports, roads and railways: Chinese economic statecraft, the Belt and Road Initiative and the politics of financial infrastructures”, European Journal of International Relations. Vol. 29(2), pp. 319–351. DOI: 10.1177/13540661221126615.
Poletti, A. and Sicurelli, D. (2018) The Political Economy of Normative Trade Power Europe. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78864-7.
Reinhard, K. (2005) Toward a political theology of the neighbor in Žižek, S., Santner, E.L. and Reinhard, K. (eds.) The Neighbor: Three Inquiries in Political Theology. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, pp. 11–75.
Rogalsky, A. (2019) Report on Classification of Energy and Mineral Resources and its Management in the Kyrgyz Republic. Geneva: United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. Available at: https://unece.org/DAM/energy/se/pdfs/UNFC/proj/unfc_ca/Report_Class_EMR_KG_Arkady_Rogalsky.pdf (Access 11.02.2026).
Seaman, J. (2025) “Critical raw materials, economic statecraft and Europe’s dependence on China”, The International Spectator. Vol. 60(2), pp. 20–37. DOI: 10.1080/03932729.2024.2379980.
Shreeves, R., et al. (2024) “The EU strategy on Central Asia: towards a new momentum?”, European Parliamentary Research Service. Available at: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2024/762300/EPRS_BRI(2024)762300_EN.pdf (Access 11.02.2026).
Siddi, M. (2019) “The EU’s botched geopolitical approach to external energy policy: the case of the Southern Gas Corridor”, Geopolitics. Vol. 24(1), pp. 124–144. DOI: 10.1080/14650045.2017.1416606.
Szulecki, K. and Overland, I. (2023) “Russian nuclear energy diplomacy and its implications for energy security in the context of the war in Ukraine”, Nature Energy. Vol. 8, pp. 413–421. DOI: 10.1038/s41560-023-01228-5.
The Times of Central Asia (2025) What can Kyrgyzstan offer the U.S.? A critical mineral you may not have heard of. 10.11. Available at: https://timesca.com/what-can-kyrgyzstan-offer-the-u-s-a-critical-mineral-you-may-not-have-heard-of/ (Access 11.02.2026).
Uzbekistan Development Strategy Center (2022) Development Strategy of New Uzbekistan for 2022–2026. Available at: https://uzembassy.kz/upload/userfiles/files/Development%20Strategy%20of%20Uzbekistan.pdf (Access 11.02.2026).
Vachudova, M.A. and Koval, N. (2024) “Ukraine’s challenge to Europe: the EU as an ethical and powerful geopolitical actor”, Ethics & International Affairs. Vol. 38(3), pp. 308–332. DOI: 10.1017/S0892679424000364.
Vakulchuk, R. and Overland, I. (2021) “Central Asia is a missing link in analyses of critical materials for the global clean energy transition”, One Earth. Vol. 4, pp. 1678–1692. DOI: 10.1016/j.oneear.2021.11.012.
Villalobos, F., Allendorf, E., Caulkins, J., Charan, S., Yoshiara, E. Silberglitt, R. and Tariq, Z.H. (2024) From Mines to Markets in the Middle East and Central Asia: Critical Mineral Suppliers and Dependencies in the U.S. Central Command Area of Responsibility. Santa Monica: RAND Corporation.
Voskoboynik, D.M. and Andreucci, D. (2021) “Greening extractivism: environmental discourses and resource governance in the «Lithium Triangle»”, Environment and Planning E: Nature and Space. Vol. 5(2), pp. 787–809. DOI: 10.1177/25148486211006345.
DOI: 10.33067/SE.1.2026.4
Language: English
Pages: 55-73
How to Cite:
Harvard
Hou, P. (2026) "A Silver Lining or Wishful Thinking? Central Asia in the EU’s Critical Raw Materials Strategy". Studia Europejskie – Studies in European Affairs, 1/2026, pp. 55-73. DOI: 10.33067/SE.1.2026.4